Oxford English Dictionary video notes

Writing the OED: New words

• Take words that aren’t in the dictionary and decide if they should be
• Draft entries for them
• Words come via wire basket of suggestions for new words from colleagues or public
• Consult in groups- collaborative process

How do you decide what to include in a dictionary?

• Depends on size and type  of dictionary
• Rare and specialist words in larger dictionaries aim to be as comprehensible as possible
• In smaller dictionaries a words usefulness has to be carefully considered
• Informal, low frequency or offensive words as made very clear that they are so
• New words added if enough evidence of their use
• Include more words in online because of more space

John Simpson interview: how have dictionaries changed?

• In 1976 worked on index cards which was the database
• Worked alphabetically
• More recently there are still cards but database in also on computer software

Writing the OED: American English

• Opened an OED office in New York which looks over American words such as American Slang
• Work on anything and everything relating to American entries new or old
• Language more informal
• Generally an acceptance of the informality in American English by British
• Accuracy of dictionary is important

Historical Thesaurus of the Oxford English Dictionary (2): exploring change

• Shows historical meaning and definitions as well as the etymology of a word
• Shows the time period of the changes the words have gone through
• Shows changes in spelling

Writing the OED

• Modern editors feel close to Victorian ones as the same processes are used
• Comprehensively revising and reviewing dictionary
• Finding earlier examples of words
• Trying to uncover small facts about the language
• Public input is important (since 1850s) makes definitions stronger
• Don’t throw away entries even if obsolete; an accumulating dictionary

Language Change

Task 1- Borrowing

Anorak- Greenlandic

Barbeque- Arawak, Spanish

Barrack- French

Blizzard- American

Bongo- Latin American Spanish

Bonsai- Japanese

Boomerang- Dharuk

Budgerigar- Aboriginal

Bungalow- Hindi

Chipmunk- Ojibwa

Chutney- Hindi

Dinghy- Hindi

Dungarees- Hindi

Gnu- Khoikhoi

Haiku- Japanese

Hamburger- German

Igloo- Inuit

Kangaroo- Aboriginal

Ketchup- Chinese

Llama- Spanish

Mohair- Arabic

Potato- Spanish

Puma- Spanish

Pyjamas- Hindi

Safari- Arabic

Sauna- Finnish

Shampoo- Hindi

Sherbet- Arabic, Turkish, Persian

Ski- Norwegian

Skyscraper- American

Taboo- Tongan

Tattoo- Dutch

Tea- Chinese, Mandarin

Toboggan- Canadian French

Tortilla- Spanish

Totem- Qjibwa

Trek- South African Dutch

Tycoon- Japanese

Yeti- Tibetan

Task 2- Phonology

This article suggests that accents should not matter anymore. It says they previously had to be voice tested and trained in order to get a job, in addition it suggests that having British or American names ‘make it easier’ for you. However, it disagrees that people should do this as accents shouldn’t matter in a ‘multiracial, multilingual, multicultural Britain’. The overall view is that as long as people can understand what you’re saying, you should be allowed to express yourself and talk however you would like to.

My experience of accents is that it can change how people view you. Some accents sound happier than others and can also change how people perceive how well educated you are. I wouldn’t say I have a very strong accent and have also been pointed out for this as I sound different to others from my area.

http://www.theguardian.com/theobserver/2013/apr/20/debate-accent-david-victoria-beckham

Task 3- Grammar and Lexis

The sentence structure is that the sentences are either minor or compound. This ruins any rhythm of the diary entry as the sentences vary from being incredibly short to long which makes the reading sound awkward and as though it doesn’t flow.

Within the sentences the adverb is before the subject such as ‘as ever I saw’ which adds to making the entry read awkwardly. In modern English this wouldn’t be ‘correct’ sentence structure. Adjective positions are also moved and many more added in to make the text sound very descriptive and emphasised. We have standardised our adjective patterns as ‘A good looking tall man’ would now be written as a tall good looking man.

There is lots of punctuation such as commas used, these are often in place of conjunctions. However, what is now considered as the Oxford Comma is also largely used which breaks up the sentences into clauses as in the third paragraph is only two sentences.

The writer uses multiple prepositions such as ‘nearly opposite to’ and also the general word order has changed as they have used preposition, verb then subject. An example of this is ‘and away galloped the horses with the coach from the statue’, nowadays, we would generally put the verb after the subject. This was likely to have changed when it became standardised at the release of grammar books.

How does the language in all three recipes change?

Text A is ‘To make a Currey the India Way’, from the Art of Cookery made Plain and Easy in 1747. The most common semantic change in this Text is narrowing. Words such as ‘shovel’ and ‘fowels’ have been narrowed, fowl used to refer to all kinds of birds and now more commonly only to guinea fowl. By recommending the reader to use fowl, it shows the lack of trade between countries during this time as the author is suggesting local produce. Despite this, there are examples of the influence of emerging British Empire and colonisation of India as the recipe includes Coriander Seeds and how the curry is made the ‘India Way’. It was also before standardisation as f is interchangeable with s which is now obsolete, examples of this is ‘foftly’ and ‘obferve’. Another example of obsolete language use is the old subjunctive ‘if the sauce be too thick’. Clipping is also used as ‘Spoonful’ loses the suffix, in addition, it shows a change in how the compound becomes a single word. There is also borrowing such as ‘Currey’ which would be taken from India. Also, ‘India’ in the title is a proper noun being as an adjective which further shows the lack of standardisation. Text A is the most formal of the Texts using verbs such as ‘obferve’, however, Text B also uses formal language such as ‘palatable’ which is considered to be quite archaic language.

Text B is titled ‘No. 3 Economical Pot Liquor soup’ from ‘A Plain Cookery Book for the Working Class’ in 1852. Another similarity between Texts A and B is the evidence of a class hierarchy. A says ‘and fend it to Table’ which insinuates through a servant and B is aimed at the working class. In Text B there are many semantic changes of broadening with words such as ‘fat’ and ‘scum’, however, there is also narrowing in words such as ‘liquor’ which would now refer to an alcoholic beverage. There is also the use of archaic language such as ‘broth’ which is also used dialectally. Another example of the archaic language is adjectives being used differently, ‘found to be too salt’, is not something that would be said in Modern English. This is the only Text to use direct address towards the audience and also the only one with a specific audience. This recipe is aimed at women on a budget and this is shown through the opening sentence being ‘A thrift housewife’. A change in lexis between Texts A and B is a greater awareness of time. In A the language is imprecise as it says ‘ftew it foftly till the meat is enough’ and B says ‘on the fire for about twenty minutes’ showing an advancement in understanding time and possibly technology.

Text C a ‘wan kaj thai-style curry’ from 1998 in ‘Meals in Minutes’ has an entirely different approach as it is cooking food that is in fashion rather than economical for large families on a budget. A similarity between A and C is the use of imperatives but this is one of the only similarities between the two. There has been a large technological advancement between 1747 and 1998. A and B show a lack of technology through phases such as ‘on the fire’ and ‘over the fire’ which shows an apparent lack of oven. Whereas, C uses terminology such as ‘non-stick pan’. Another example of advancement is in the increasing precision of measurements. By 1998 there were exact measurements of 400g of coconut milk whereas A has a ‘large Spoonful’. Text C reflects the society’s desire of being more health conscious as it contains nutrition values which shows more scientific neologisms being present. Another way it reflects society is the smaller number that it serves and how it is aimed at people in a hurry but the detailed instructions show it is also aimed at people who are inexperienced cooks but are cooking for pleasure more than necessity. Examples of the detailed instructions are the increase of adjectives such as ‘gentle simmer’.  The language used is quite elliptical which shows a change as the previous Texts were quite formal.

The sentence structure in A is very minimal. The entire text is split into three sentences which shows the little discourse structure. There is no obvious recipe structure and it is a list laid out on paragraphs. It has a newspaper aesthetic which is a similar graphology to Text B, the capitalisation in Text A adds emphasis to this effect. In addition, they both have long sentences and being laid out in paragraphs. Text C has a completely different graphology which is more easily read which could reflect how it is designed for people in a hurry to cook. C is also the only Text to have a persuasive paragraph previous to recipe showing a change in how people can choose what to cook rather than what they can afford for a large family. The technology advancement also shows as how it can be printed changes the layout. In addition, the changes of fonts at different is a part of the discourse structure and graphological device.

Language Change Exercise

Lean
The modern meaning of lean is be in or move into a sloping position and a deviation from the perpendicular; an inclination. This has changed from originally meaning thin, emancipated. Lean has been through a semantic change of broadening. The adjective of lean is defined as (a person or animal) being thin, especially healthily so; having no superfluous fat. This shows a conversion as it has changed from being a verb to an adjective. The semantic change that has taken place is amelioration as it has changed from meaning a sloping position to being healthy which shows a positive change of definition.


Novice
Novice is now defined as a person new to and inexperienced in a job. The previous meaning of this word was  a member of a religious order who has not taken vows yet meaning it has been broadened. The definition is now less specific but has the same general meaning.


Revolutionary
An earlier meaning of revolutionary was someone who favours overthrowing the government, however, more recently it is defined as  a person who advocates or engages in political revolution or engaged in or promoting political revolution. This shows that a semantic change has taken place of narrowing as the definition is now a lot more specific to politics. It has also been through a semantic change of amelioration, the definition is now more positive as it is engaging and promoting politics rather than overthrowing.


Lewd
Lewd used to mean not having an official position in the church, to now being defined as crude and offensive in a sexual way. This show lewd has been through a semantic change of broadening as it no longer applies to people in a church, another change is pejoration as it now has attained a much more negative meaning.

Comparative Systematic Analysis of Menus.

Menu A (Wayfarer Cafe) has a purpose to inform passing Truck drivers of the food available and is written in an elliptical style. Whereas, Menu B (The Ravenscroft Suite Gourmet Dinner Dance) is aimed at upper class adults with an interest in cuisine, because of this, the menu is still informative but also slightly persuasive.

The graphology of both A and B is chronologically sectioned. In A the first section of the menu is dedicated to breakfast meals and continues into main meals, puddings and snacks. Similarly, B is also chronologically listed between starters and main courses, each meal separated by a consigned number of asterisks. The aesthetics of this menu remain consistent throughout. On the other hand, the entirety of A is written in capitals, this gives a less professional aesthetic which would suitably reflect the target audience and context.

Menu A uses a lot of abbreviated language such as “B/FAST”, this connotes the colloquialism of the café, but also the context of the drivers only having a limited amount of time to read the menu and select their food based on the visible key words. As a consequence of this there are also omitted prepositions such as “pot tea” instead of ‘pot of tea’. To further extenuate the informality of the menu, there are many symbols used in the place of words, especially conjunctions. A separate example of this is where the symbol “2” is used in place of ‘two’ to decrease the size of the menu. Generally, only simplified language is used and a lot of high frequency words such as ‘chips’. Other examples of types of lexis include certain dialect, “parkin” and “barm” are words that would only be understood in the Manchester area.

Menu B’s language is much more complex, it features pre-modification and post-modification “An interesting warm salad of smoked bacon, wild mushrooms and duck”. Other lexis used can sometimes appear out of context such as “attentively” would generally not be a word featured on a food menu. There is also a semantic field of French vocabulary used, with six words from throughout fitting into this category. The upper class context of the menu is connoted from the description of the food such as “enrobed in crepinette”. There are also noun phrases used such as “peeled prawns”, which is ensued by post modification, this would make the menu appear more enticing to the audience as by not following a generic sentence structure, any reading rhythm would be lost and subsequently force them to be more attentive of the menu.

How Sophie's language has developed from the telegraphic stage to the post telegraphic stage.

At the age of two years and four months, Sophie is in the early telegraphic stage. It is shown that Sophie has progressed from the two word stage as she is using a larger combination of words in each phrase and this is how I can tell she is still in the early telegraphic. She uses a large amount of possessive pronouns; ‘me’ with a minority of ‘I’. From Ursula Bellugi’s theory on development of pronouns you can tell she is in Stage 2 of pronouns, which is when the child uses me or I in a sentence but interchanges them. Sophie also proves Stage 1 or Bellugi’s other theory by using ‘no’ at the beginning of a phrase which also shows she has only just moved on from the two word stage “no I got any hoover”.

At three years and five months, Sophie’s language has developed into the post telegraphic stage. She has begun to use more complex pronouns such as ‘her’ and to further develop her language onto the definite article. Sophie has also moved onto stage 3 of Bellugi as she negates using an auxiliary verb. However, she still uses child-like language in the form of ellipsis where she says “corder” instead of recorder. Her use of language has also become more complex as she is now capable of correctly using modal auxiliaries and prepositions.

The main development in Sophie’s language is shown through her sentence structure. In the post telegraphic stage she has used a conjunction to form a compound sentence, “I want to ring up somebody and her won’t be there tomorrow”. In addition, her use of time phrases “after lunch” correlates which her developed language. This shows how her acquisition of language is linked to cognitive development.     

General Basis of Language Investigation

My English Language Investigation will be based around whether the language used in print smoking adverts correlates with the attitude at the time. My hypothesis will be something such as how more rhetorical questions will be used in older adverts, there will be more synthetic personalisation in more recent adverts and how more recent adverts will revolve around the graphology. Also mainly about how there will be predominately positive lexis in older adverts and negative in recent adverts, also how there is epistemic and deontic verbs.

 My area of theory is language and power and the main theories I am going to feature are the face theory, influential power and Fairclough’s theory. The frameworks I will be looking out for are rhetorical questions, the graphology, persuasive language, synthetic personalisation, the use of verbs and semantic fields.

The data I am going to collect will be total six adverts, two from each of the following decades: the sixties, eighties and the beginning of the twenty first century. I am yet to decide how I am going to select them. I feel this will be enough to have a reliable outcome at the end of my investigation.  My comparability factors will be that they are from the same decade and feature the same product/area focus. Things I am yet to take into consideration are that they could all be from a specific part of publishing (eg a magazine, newspaper) and what country the product is from (mainly UK or America). The factors I could be contrasting are the brands of cigarette, whether the advert is for or against smoking and how some adverts could be selling cigarettes and others may be preventing smoking/looking at the health of smoking. The reliability factors will be ensuring the two adverts from the decade will be enough to get the overall attitude and to make sure I don’t have any anomalous adverts from the decade.